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Rust (programming language)

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</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#e0e0e0;">Rust</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Paradigms</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1288773161">

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</style><ul class="cslist"><li><a href="Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent</a></li><li><a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional</a></li><li><a href="Generic_programming" title="Generic programming">generic</a></li><li><a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">imperative</a></li><li><a href="Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">structured</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Software_developer" class="mw-redirect" title="Software developer">Developer</a></th><td class="infobox-data organiser">The Rust Team</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">First appeared</th><td class="infobox-data">January 19, 2012 (2012-01-19)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Software_release_life_cycle" title="Software release life cycle">Stable release</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="margin:0px;">1.89.0<a href="#cite_note-wikidata-42eccb0a605b229c6b6eea550d8b48ffbb9477d8-v20-1">[1]</a>

/ August 7, 2025 (August 7, 2025)</div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">

</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Type_system" title="Type system">Typing discipline</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><ul class="cslist"><li><a href="Affine_type_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Affine type system">Affine</a></li><li><a href="Type_inference" title="Type inference">inferred</a></li><li><a href="Nominal_type_system" title="Nominal type system">nominal</a></li><li><a href="Static_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Static typing">static</a></li><li><a href="Strong_and_weak_typing" title="Strong and weak typing">strong</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Implementation language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="OCaml" title="OCaml">OCaml</a> (2006–2011) Rust (2012–present)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">Platform</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Cross-platform_software" title="Cross-platform software">Cross-platform</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[note 1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">OS</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Cross-platform_software" title="Cross-platform software">Cross-platform</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[note 2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Software_license" title="Software license">License</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="MIT_License" title="MIT License">MIT</a>, <a href="Apache_License" title="Apache License">Apache 2.0</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[note 3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Filename_extension" title="Filename extension">Filename extensions</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><code>.rs</code>, <code>.rlib</code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rust-lang.org/">rust-lang.org</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Influenced by</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><ul class="cslist"><li><a href="Alef_(programming_language)" title="Alef (programming language)">Alef</a></li><li><a href="BETA_(programming_language)" title="BETA (programming language)">BETA</a></li><li><a href="CLU_(programming_language)" title="CLU (programming language)">CLU</a></li><li><a href="C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a></li><li><a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a></li><li><a href="Cyclone_(programming_language)" title="Cyclone (programming language)">Cyclone</a></li><li><a href="Elm_(programming_language)" title="Elm (programming language)">Elm</a></li><li><a href="Erlang_(programming_language)" title="Erlang (programming language)">Erlang</a></li><li><a href="Haskell" title="Haskell">Haskell</a></li><li><a href="Hermes_(programming_language)" title="Hermes (programming language)">Hermes</a></li><li><a href="Limbo_(programming_language)" title="Limbo (programming language)">Limbo</a></li><li><a href="Mesa_(programming_language)" title="Mesa (programming language)">Mesa</a></li><li><a href="Napier88" title="Napier88">Napier</a></li><li><a href="Newsqueak" title="Newsqueak">Newsqueak</a></li><li><a href="NIL_(programming_language)" title="NIL (programming language)">NIL</a></li><li><a href="OCaml" title="OCaml">OCaml</a></li><li><a href="Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a></li><li><a href="Sather" title="Sather">Sather</a></li><li><a href="Scheme_(programming_language)" title="Scheme (programming language)">Scheme</a></li><li><a href="Standard_ML" title="Standard ML">Standard ML</a></li><li><a href="Swift_(programming_language)" title="Swift (programming language)">Swift</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-influences-9">[6]</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Influenced</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><ul class="cslist"><li><a href="Idris_(programming_language)" title="Idris (programming language)">Idris</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[7]</a></li><li><a href="Project_Verona" title="Project Verona">Project Verona</a><a href="#cite_note-Project_Verona-11">[8]</a></li><li><a href="SPARK_(programming_language)" title="SPARK (programming language)">SPARK</a><a href="#cite_note-Jaloyan-12">[9]</a></li><li><a href="Swift_(programming_language)" title="Swift (programming language)">Swift</a><a href="#cite_note-Lattner-13">[10]</a></li><li><a href="V_(programming_language)" title="V (programming language)">V</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[11]</a></li><li><a href="Zig_(programming_language)" title="Zig (programming language)">Zig</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[12]</a></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table>

Rust is a <a href="General-purpose_programming_language" title="General-purpose programming language">general-purpose</a> <a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a> emphasizing <a href="Computer_performance" title="Computer performance">performance</a>, <a href="Type_safety" title="Type safety">type safety</a>, and <a href="Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">concurrency</a>. It enforces <a href="Memory_safety" title="Memory safety">memory safety</a>, meaning that all <a href="Reference_(computer_science)" title="Reference (computer science)">references</a> point to valid memory. It does so without a conventional <a href="Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" title="Garbage collection (computer science)">garbage collector</a>; instead, memory safety errors and <a href="Data_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Data race">data races</a> are prevented by the "borrow checker", which tracks the <a href="Object_lifetime" title="Object lifetime">object lifetime</a> of references <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">at compile time</a>.

Rust supports multiple <a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">programming paradigms</a>. It was influenced by ideas from <a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional programming</a>, including <a href="Immutable_object" title="Immutable object">immutability</a>, <a href="Higher-order_function" title="Higher-order function">higher-order functions</a>, <a href="Algebraic_data_type" title="Algebraic data type">algebraic data types</a>, and <a href="Pattern_matching" title="Pattern matching">pattern matching</a>. It also supports <a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented programming</a> via structs, <a href="Union_type" title="Union type">enums</a>, traits, and methods.

Software developer Graydon Hoare created Rust as a personal project while working at <a href="Mozilla" title="Mozilla">Mozilla</a> Research in 2006. Mozilla officially sponsored the project in 2009. The first stable release of Rust, Rust 1.0, was published in May 2015. Following a large layoff of Mozilla employees in August 2020, multiple other companies joined Mozilla in sponsoring Rust through the creation of the <a href="#Rust_Foundation">Rust Foundation</a> in February 2021. In December 2022, Rust became the first language other than <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> and <a href="Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly</a> to be supported in the development of the <a href="Linux_kernel" title="Linux kernel">Linux kernel</a>.

Rust has been noted for its adoption in many software projects, especially <a href="Web_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Web services">web services</a> and <a href="System_software" title="System software">system software</a>. It has been studied academically and has a growing community of developers.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2006–2009:_Early_years">2006–2009: Early years</h3></div>

Rust began as a personal project by <a href="Mozilla" title="Mozilla">Mozilla</a> employee Graydon Hoare in 2006.<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a> Hoare started the project due to his frustration with a broken elevator in his apartment building.<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a> Hoare has stated that Rust was named for the <a href="Rust_(fungus)" title="Rust (fungus)">group of fungi</a> that are "over-engineered for survival".<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a> During the time period between 2006 and 2009, Rust was not publicized to others at Mozilla and was written in Hoare's free time;<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 7:50 Hoare began speaking about the language around 2009 after a small group at Mozilla became interested in the project.<a href="#cite_note-Hoare2010-18">[15]</a> Hoare emphasized prioritizing good ideas from old languages over new development, citing languages including <a href="CLU_(programming_language)" title="CLU (programming language)">CLU</a> (1974), <a href="BETA_(programming_language)" title="BETA (programming language)">BETA</a> (1975), <a href="Mesa_(programming_language)" title="Mesa (programming language)">Mesa</a> (1977), <a href="NIL_(programming_language)" title="NIL (programming language)">NIL</a> (1981), <a href="Erlang_(programming_language)" title="Erlang (programming language)">Erlang</a> (1987), <a href="Newsqueak" title="Newsqueak">Newsqueak</a> (1988), <a href="Napier88" title="Napier88">Napier</a> (1988), <a href="Hermes_(programming_language)" title="Hermes (programming language)">Hermes</a> (1990), <a href="Sather" title="Sather">Sather</a> (1990), <a href="Alef_(programming_language)" title="Alef (programming language)">Alef</a> (1992), and <a href="Limbo_(programming_language)" title="Limbo (programming language)">Limbo</a> (1996) as influences, stating "many older languages [are] better than new ones", and describing the language as "technology from the past come to save the future from itself."<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 8:17 <a href="#cite_note-Hoare2010-18">[15]</a> Early Rust developer Manish Goregaokar similarly described Rust as being based on "mostly decades-old research."<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a>

During the early years, the Rust <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a> was written in about 38,000 lines of <a href="OCaml" title="OCaml">OCaml</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 15:34 <a href="#cite_note-OCamlCompiler-19">[16]</a> Early Rust contained features such as explicit <a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented programming</a> via an <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">obj</code> keyword (later removed),<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 10:08 and a <a href="Typestate_analysis" title="Typestate analysis">typestates</a> system that would allow variables of a type to be tracked along with state changes (such as going from uninitialized to initialized).<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 13:12

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2009–2012:_Mozilla_sponsorship">2009–2012: Mozilla sponsorship</h3></div>

Mozilla officially sponsored the Rust project in 2009.<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a> <a href="Brendan_Eich" title="Brendan Eich">Brendan Eich</a> and other executives, intrigued by the possibility of using Rust for a safe <a href="Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browser</a> <a href="Browser_engine" title="Browser engine">engine</a>, placed engineers on the project including Patrick Walton, Niko Matsakis, Felix Klock, and Manish Goregaokar.<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a> A conference room taken by the project developers was dubbed "the nerd cave," with a sign placed outside the door.<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a>

During this time period, work had shifted from the initial OCaml compiler to a <a href="Self-hosting_(compilers)" title="Self-hosting (compilers)">self-hosting compiler</a>, i.e., written in Rust, based on <a href="LLVM" title="LLVM">LLVM</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rust0.1-20">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[note 4]</a> The Rust ownership system was also in place by 2010.<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a> The Rust logo was developed in 2011 based on a bicycle <a href="Crankset#Chainring" title="Crankset">chainring</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[19]</a>

The first public release, Rust 0.1 was released on January 20, 2012<a href="#cite_note-Rust0.1a-24">[20]</a> for Windows, Linux, and MacOS.<a href="#cite_note-ExtremeTechRust0.1-25">[21]</a> The early 2010s saw increasing involvement from open source volunteers outside of Mozilla and outside of the United States. At Mozilla, executives would eventually employ over a dozen engineers to work on Rust full time over the next decade.<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2012–2015:_Evolution">2012–2015: Evolution</h3></div>

The years from 2012 to 2015 were marked by substantial changes to the Rust <a href="Type_system" title="Type system">type system</a>, especially, removal of the typestate system, consolidation of other language features, and the removal of the <a href="Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" title="Garbage collection (computer science)">garbage collector</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 18:36 <a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a> Memory management through the ownership system was gradually consolidated and expanded to prevent memory-related bugs. By 2013, the garbage collector feature was rarely used, and was removed by the team in favor of the ownership system.<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a> Other changes during this time included the removal of <a href="Pure_function" title="Pure function">pure functions</a>, which were declared by an explicit <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">pure</code> annotation, in March 2013.<a href="#cite_note-26">[22]</a> Specialized syntax support for <a href="Channel_(programming)" title="Channel (programming)">channels</a> and various pointer types were removed to simplify the language.<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 22:32

Rust's expansion and consolidation was influenced by developers coming from <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a> (e.g., low-level performance of features), <a href="Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">scripting languages</a> (e.g., Cargo and package management), and <a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional programming</a> (e.g., type systems development).<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 30:50

Graydon Hoare stepped down from Rust in 2013.<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a> This allowed it to evolve organically under a more federated governance structure, with a "core team" of initially six people,<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 21:45 around 30-40 developers total across various other teams,<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 22:22 and a Request for Comments (RFC) process for new language features added in March 2014.<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 33:47 The core team would grow to nine people by 2016<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 21:45 with over 1600 proposed RFCs.<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 34:08

According to Andrew Binstock writing for <a href="Dr._Dobb's_Journal" title="Dr. Dobb's Journal">Dr. Dobb's Journal</a> in January 2014, while Rust was "widely viewed as a remarkably elegant language", adoption slowed because it radically changed from version to version.<a href="#cite_note-27">[23]</a> Rust development at this time was focused on finalizing the language features and moving towards 1.0 so it could begin promising <a href="Backward_compatibility" title="Backward compatibility">backward compatibility</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 41:26

Six years after Mozilla sponsored its development, the first <a href="Stable_release" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable release">stable release</a>, Rust 1.0, was published on May 15, 2015.<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a> A year after the release, the Rust compiler had accumulated over 1,400 contributors and there were over 5,000 third-party libraries published on the Rust package management website Crates.io.<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 43:15

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2015–2020:_Servo_and_early_adoption">2015–2020: Servo and early adoption</h3></div>

The development of the <a href="Servo_(software)" title="Servo (software)">Servo browser engine</a> continued in parallel with Rust, jointly funded by Mozilla and <a href="Samsung" title="Samsung">Samsung</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[24]</a> The teams behind the two projects worked in close collaboration; new features in Rust were tested out by the Servo team, and new features in Servo were used to give feedback back to the Rust team.<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 5:41 The first version of Servo was released in 2016.<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a> The <a href="Firefox" title="Firefox">Firefox</a> web browser shipped with Rust code as of 2016 (version 45),<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 53:30 <a href="#cite_note-29">[25]</a> but components of Servo did not appear in Firefox until September 2017 (version 57) as part of the <a href="Gecko_(software)" title="Gecko (software)">Gecko</a> and <a href="Gecko_(software)#Quantum" title="Gecko (software)">Quantum</a> projects.<a href="#cite_note-30">[26]</a>

Improvements were made to the Rust toolchain ecosystem during the years following 1.0 including <a href="#Rustfmt">Rustfmt</a>, <a href="Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">integrated development environment</a> integration,<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 44:56 a regular compiler testing and release cycle,<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 46:48 a community <a href="Code_of_conduct" title="Code of conduct">code of conduct</a>, and community discussion organized through an <a href="IRC" title="IRC">IRC</a> chat.<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 50:36

The earliest adoption outside of Mozilla was by individual projects at Samsung, <a href="Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a> (now <a href="Meta_Platforms" title="Meta Platforms">Meta Platforms</a>), <a href="Dropbox" title="Dropbox">Dropbox</a>, and others including Tilde, Inc. (the company behind <a href="Ember.js" title="Ember.js">ember.js</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Klabnik2016ACMHistory-17">[14]</a>: 55:44 <a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a> <a href="Amazon_Web_Services" title="Amazon Web Services">Amazon Web Services</a> followed in 2020.<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a> Engineers cited performance, lack of a garbage collector, safety, and pleasantness of working in the language as reasons for the adoption, while acknowledging that it was a risky bet as Rust was new technology. Amazon developers cited a finding by Portuguese researchers that Rust code <a href="Energy_efficiency_in_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy efficiency in computing">uses less energy</a> compared to similar code written in <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> and <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, behind only <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-2017PortugalEnergyStudy-31">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[note 5]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2020–present:_Mozilla_layoffs_and_Rust_Foundation">2020–present: Mozilla layoffs and Rust Foundation</h3></div>

In August 2020, Mozilla laid off 250 of its 1,000 employees worldwide, as part of a corporate restructuring caused by the <a href="COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[29]</a> The team behind Servo was disbanded. The event raised concerns about the future of Rust, due to the overlap between the two projects.<a href="#cite_note-35">[30]</a> In the following week, the Rust Core Team acknowledged the severe impact of the layoffs and announced that plans for a Rust foundation were underway. The first goal of the foundation would be to take ownership of all <a href="Trademark" title="Trademark">trademarks</a> and <a href="Domain_name" title="Domain name">domain names</a>, and take financial responsibility for their costs.<a href="#cite_note-36">[31]</a>

On February 8, 2021, the formation of the <a href="#Rust_Foundation">Rust Foundation</a> was announced by five founding companies: <a href="Amazon_Web_Services" title="Amazon Web Services">Amazon Web Services</a>, <a href="Google" title="Google">Google</a>, <a href="Huawei" title="Huawei">Huawei</a>, <a href="Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>, and <a href="Mozilla" title="Mozilla">Mozilla</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[33]</a> The foundation, led by Shane Miller for its first two years, offered $20,000 grants and other support for programmers working on major Rust features.<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a> In a <a href="Blog" title="Blog">blog</a> post published on April 6, 2021, Google announced support for Rust within the <a href="Android_Open_Source_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Android Open Source Project">Android Open Source Project</a> as an alternative to C/C++.<a href="#cite_note-39">[34]</a>

On November 22, 2021, the Moderation Team, which was responsible for enforcing the community code of conduct, announced their resignation "in protest of the Core Team placing themselves unaccountable to anyone but themselves".<a href="#cite_note-moderation-40">[35]</a> In May 2022, the Rust Core Team, other lead programmers, and certain members of the Rust Foundation board implemented governance reforms in response to the incident.<a href="#cite_note-41">[36]</a>

The Rust Foundation posted a draft for a new trademark policy on April 6, 2023, including rules for how the Rust logo and name can be used, which resulted in negative reactions from Rust users and contributors.<a href="#cite_note-42">[37]</a>

On February 26, 2024, the U.S. <a href="White_House" title="White House">White House</a> through the <a href="Office_of_the_National_Cyber_Director" title="Office of the National Cyber Director">Office of the National Cyber Director</a> released a 19-page press report urging software development to move away from C and C++ and encouraging the use of memory-safe languages like C#, Go, Java, Ruby, Swift, and Rust.<a href="#cite_note-WhiteHouse1-43">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-WhiteHouse2-44">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-WhiteHouseFullReport-45">[40]</a> The report has been interpreted as increasing interest in Rust.<a href="#cite_note-WhiteHouse3-46">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-WhiteHouse4-47">[42]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax_and_features">Syntax and features</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Rust_syntax" title="Rust syntax">Rust syntax</a></div>

Rust's <a href="Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">syntax</a> is similar to that of <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> and C++,<a href="#cite_note-48">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-49">[44]</a> although many of its features were influenced by <a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional programming</a> languages such as <a href="OCaml" title="OCaml">OCaml</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2019263-50">[45]</a> Hoare has described Rust as targeted at frustrated C++ developers and emphasized features such as safety, control of <a href="Memory_layout" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory layout">memory layout</a>, and <a href="Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">concurrency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hoare2010-18">[15]</a> Safety in Rust includes the guarantees of memory safety, type safety, and lack of data races.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hello_World_program">Hello World program</h3></div>

Below is a <a href="%22Hello%2C_World!%22_program" title=""Hello, World!" program">"Hello, World!" program</a> in Rust. The <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">fn</code> keyword denotes a <a href="Function_(computer_programming)" title="Function (computer programming)">function</a>, and the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">println!</code> <a href="Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">macro</a> (see <a href="#Macros">§ Macros</a>) prints the message to <a href="Standard_output" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard output">standard output</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols20195–6-51">[46]</a> <a href="Statement_(computer_science)" title="Statement (computer science)">Statements</a> in Rust are separated by <a href="Semicolon#Programming" title="Semicolon">semicolons</a>.

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>fn main() {

println!("Hello, World!");

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variables">Variables</h3></div>

<a href="Variable_(computer_science)" title="Variable (computer science)">Variables</a> in Rust are defined through the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">let</code> keyword.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols202332-52">[47]</a> The example below assigns a value to the variable with name <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">foo</code> and outputs its value.

let foo: i32 = 10;

println!("The value of foo is {foo}");

}

</pre></div>

Variables are <a href="Immutable_object" title="Immutable object">immutable</a> by default, but adding the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">mut</code> keyword allows the variable to be mutated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols202332–33-53">[48]</a> The following example uses <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">//</code>, which denotes the start of a <a href="Comment_(computer_programming)" title="Comment (computer programming)">comment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols202349–50-54">[49]</a>

// This code would not compile without adding "mut".

let mut foo: i32 = 10;

println!("The value of foo is {foo}");

foo = 20;

println!("The value of foo is {foo}");

}

</pre></div>

Multiple <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">let</code> expressions can define multiple variables with the same name, known as <a href="Variable_shadowing" title="Variable shadowing">variable shadowing</a>. Variable shadowing allows transforming variables without having to name the variables differently.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols202334–36-55">[50]</a> The example below declares a new variable with the same name that is double the original value:

// This will output "The value of foo is 10"

println!("The value of foo is {foo}");

// This will output "The value of foo is 20"

println!("The value of foo is {foo}");

}

</pre></div>

Variable shadowing is also possible for values of different types. For example, going from a string to its length:

let letters: str = "abc";

let letters: usize = letters.len();

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Block_expressions_and_control_flow">Block expressions and control flow</h3></div>

A block expression is delimited by <a href="Bracket#Curly_brackets" title="Bracket">curly brackets</a>. When the last expression inside a block does not end with a semicolon, the block evaluates to the value of that trailing expression:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols20236,_47,_53-56">[51]</a>

println!("this is inside the block");

1 + 2

};

println!("1 + 2 = {x}");

}

</pre></div>

Trailing expressions of function bodies are used as the return value:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols202347–48-57">[52]</a>

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>fn add_two(x: i32) -> i32 {

x + 2

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="if_expressions"><code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">if</code> expressions</h4></div>

An <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">if</code> <a href="Conditional_expression" class="mw-redirect" title="Conditional expression">conditional expression</a> executes code based on whether the given value is <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">true</code>. <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">else</code> can be used for when the value evaluates to <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">false</code>, and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">else if</code> can be used for combining multiple expressions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols202350–53-58">[53]</a>

if x > 5 {

println!("value is greater than five");

}

if x % 7 == 0 {

println!("value is divisible by 7");

} else if x % 5 == 0 {

println!("value is divisible by 5");

} else {

println!("value is not divisible by 7 or 5");

}

}

</pre></div>

<code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">if</code> and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">else</code> blocks can evaluate to a value, which can then be assigned to a variable:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols202350–53-58">[53]</a>

let new_x: i32 = if x % 2 == 0 { x / 2 } else { 3 * x + 1 };

println!("{new_x}");

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="while_loops"><code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">while</code> loops</h4></div>

<code><a href="While_loop" title="While loop">while</a></code> can be used to repeat a block of code while a condition is met.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols202356-59">[54]</a>

// Iterate over all integers from 4 to 10

let mut value: i32 = 4;

while value <= 10 {

println!("value = {value}");

value += 1;

}

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="for_loops_and_iterators"><code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">for</code> loops and iterators</h4></div>

<a href="For_loop" title="For loop">For loops</a> in Rust loop over elements of a collection.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols202357–58-60">[55]</a>

<code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">for</code> expressions work over any <a href="Iterator" title="Iterator">iterator</a> type.

// Using `for` with range syntax for the same functionality as above

// The syntax 4..=10 means the range from 4 to 10, up to and including 10.

for value in 4..=10 {

println!("value = {value}");

}

}

</pre></div>

In the above code, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">4..=10</code> is a value of type <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">Range</code> which implements the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">Iterator</code> trait. The code within the curly braces is applied to each element returned by the iterator.

Iterators can be combined with functions over iterators like <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">map</code>, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">filter</code>, and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">sum</code>. For example, the following adds up all numbers between 1 and 100 that are multiples of 3:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>(1..=100).filter(|&x| x % 3 == 0).sum()

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="loop_and_break_statements"><code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">loop</code> and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">break</code> statements</h4></div>

More generally, the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">loop</code> keyword allows repeating a portion of code until a <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">break</code> occurs. <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">break</code> may optionally exit the loop with a value. In the case of nested loops, labels denoted by <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">'label_name</code> can be used to break an outer loop rather than the innermost loop.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols202354–56-61">[56]</a>

let value: i32 = 456;

let mut x: i32 = 1;

let y = loop {

x *= 10;

if x > value {

break x / 10;

}

};

println!("largest power of ten that is smaller than or equal to value: {y}");

let mut up: i32 = 1;

'outer: loop {

let mut down: i32 = 120;

loop {

if up > 100 {

break 'outer;

}

if down < 4 {

break;

}

down /= 2;

up += 1;

println!("up: {up}, down: {down}");

}

up *= 2;

}

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pattern_matching">Pattern matching</h3></div>

The <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">match</code> and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">if let</code> expressions can be used for <a href="Pattern_matching" title="Pattern matching">pattern matching</a>. For example, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">match</code> can be used to double an optional integer value if present, and return zero otherwise:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2019104–109-62">[57]</a>

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>fn double(x: Option<u64>) -> u64 {

match x {

Some(y) => y * 2,

None => 0,

}

}

</pre></div>

Equivalently, this can be written with <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">if let</code> and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">else</code>:

if let Some(y) = x {

y * 2

} else {

0

}

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types">Types</h3></div>

Rust is <a href="Strongly_typed" class="mw-redirect" title="Strongly typed">strongly typed</a> and <a href="Statically_typed" class="mw-redirect" title="Statically typed">statically typed</a>, meaning that the types of all variables must be known at compilation time. Assigning a value of a particular type to a differently typed variable causes a <a href="Compilation_error" title="Compilation error">compilation error</a>. <a href="Type_inference" title="Type inference">Type inference</a> is used to determine the type of variables if unspecified.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols201924-63">[58]</a>

The default integer type is <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">i32</code>, and the default <a href="Floating_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating point">floating point</a> type is <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">f64</code>. If the type of a <a href="Literal_(computer_programming)" title="Literal (computer programming)">literal</a> number is not explicitly provided, it is either inferred from the context or the default type is used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols201936–38-64">[59]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primitive_types">Primitive types</h4></div>

<a href="Integer_type" class="mw-redirect" title="Integer type">Integer types</a> in Rust are named based on the <a href="Signedness" title="Signedness">signedness</a> and the number of bits the type takes. For example, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">i32</code> is a signed integer that takes 32 bits of storage, whereas <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">u8</code> is unsigned and only takes 8 bits of storage. <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">isize</code> and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">usize</code> take storage depending on the architecture of the computer that runs the code, for example, on computers with <a href="32-bit_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="32-bit architecture">32-bit architectures</a>, both types will take up 32 bits of space.

By default, integer literals are in base-10, but different <a href="Radix" title="Radix">radices</a> are supported with prefixes, for example, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">0b11</code> for <a href="Binary_number" title="Binary number">binary numbers</a>, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">0o567</code> for <a href="Octal" title="Octal">octals</a>, and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">0xDB</code> for <a href="Hexadecimal" title="Hexadecimal">hexadecimals</a>. By default, integer literals default to <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">i32</code> as its type. Suffixes such as <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">4u32</code> can be used to explicitly set the type of a literal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols202336–38-65">[60]</a> Byte literals such as <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">b'X'</code> are available to represent the <a href="ASCII" title="ASCII">ASCII</a> value (as a <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">u8</code>) of a specific character.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2023502-66">[61]</a>

The <a href="Boolean_type" class="mw-redirect" title="Boolean type">Boolean type</a> is referred to as <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">bool</code> which can take a value of either <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">true</code> or <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">false</code>. A <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">char</code> takes up 32 bits of space and represents a Unicode scalar value: a <a href="Unicode_codepoint" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicode codepoint">Unicode codepoint</a> that is not a <a href="Universal_Character_Set_characters#Surrogates" title="Universal Character Set characters">surrogate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[62]</a> <a href="IEEE_754" title="IEEE 754">IEEE 754</a> floating point numbers are supported with <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">f32</code> for <a href="Single_precision_float" class="mw-redirect" title="Single precision float">single precision floats</a> and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">f64</code> for <a href="Double_precision_float" class="mw-redirect" title="Double precision float">double precision floats</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols201938–40-68">[63]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Compound_types">Compound types</h4></div>

Compound types can contain multiple values. Tuples are fixed-size lists that can contain values whose types can be different. Arrays are fixed-size lists whose values are of the same type. Expressions of the tuple and array types can be written through listing the values, and can be accessed with <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">.index</code> or <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">[index]</code>:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols202340–42-69">[64]</a>

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>let tuple: (u32, bool) = (3, true);

let array: [i8; 5] = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];

let value: bool = tuple.1; // true

let value: i8 = array[2]; // 3

</pre></div>

Arrays can also be constructed through copying a single value a number of times:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols202342-70">[65]</a>

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>let array2: [char; 10] = [' '; 10];

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ownership_and_references">Ownership and references</h3></div>

Rust's ownership system consists of rules that ensure memory safety without using a garbage collector. At compile time, each value must be attached to a variable called the owner of that value, and every value must have exactly one owner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols201959–61-71">[66]</a> Values are moved between different owners through assignment or passing a value as a function parameter. Values can also be borrowed, meaning they are temporarily passed to a different function before being returned to the owner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols201963–68-72">[67]</a> With these rules, Rust can prevent the creation and use of <a href="Dangling_pointers" class="mw-redirect" title="Dangling pointers">dangling pointers</a>:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols201963–68-72">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols201974–75-73">[68]</a>

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>fn print_string(s: String) {

println!("{}", s);

}

fn main() {

let s: String = String::from("Hello, World");

print_string(s); // s consumed by print_string

// s has been moved, so cannot be used any more

// another print_string(s); would result in a compile error

}

</pre></div>

The function <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">print_string</code> takes ownership over the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">String</code> value passed in; Alternatively, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">&</code> can be used to indicate a <a href="Reference_(computer_science)" title="Reference (computer science)">reference</a> type (in <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">&String</code>) and to create a reference (in <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">&s</code>):<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols202371–72-74">[69]</a>

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>fn print_string(s: &String) {

}

fn main() {

print_string(&s); // s borrowed by print_string

}

</pre></div>

Because of these ownership rules, Rust types are known as <a href="Linear_types" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear types">linear</a> or affine types, meaning each value can be used exactly once. This enforces a form of <a href="Software_fault_isolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Software fault isolation">software fault isolation</a> as the owner of a value is solely responsible for its correctness and deallocation.<a href="#cite_note-BeyondSafety-75">[70]</a>

When a value goes out of scope, it is dropped by running its <a href="Destructor_(computer_programming)" title="Destructor (computer programming)">destructor</a>. The destructor may be programmatically defined through implementing the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">Drop</code> <a href="#Traits">trait</a>. This helps manage resources such as file handles, network sockets, and <a href="Lock_(computer_science)" title="Lock (computer science)">locks</a>, since when objects are dropped, the resources associated with them are closed or released automatically.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2023327–30-76">[71]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lifetimes">Lifetimes</h4></div>

<a href="Object_lifetime" title="Object lifetime">Object lifetime</a> refers to the period of time during which a reference is valid; that is, the time between the object creation and destruction.<a href="#cite_note-77">[72]</a> These lifetimes are implicitly associated with all Rust reference types. While often inferred, they can also be indicated explicitly with named lifetime parameters (often denoted <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">'a</code>, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">'b</code>, and so on).<a href="#cite_note-78">[73]</a>

Lifetimes in Rust can be thought of as <a href="Scope_(computer_science)" title="Scope (computer science)">lexically scoped</a>, meaning that the duration of an object lifetime is inferred from the set of locations in the source code (i.e., function, line, and column numbers) for which a variable is valid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2019194-79">[74]</a> For example, a reference to a local variable has a lifetime corresponding to the block it is defined in:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2019194-79">[74]</a>

let x: i32 = 5; // ------------------+- Lifetime 'a

// |

let r: &i32 = &x; // -+-- Lifetime 'b |

// | |

println!("r: {}", r); // | |

// | |

// -+ |

} // ------------------+

</pre></div>

The borrow checker in the Rust compiler then enforces that references are only used in the locations of the source code where the associated lifetime is valid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols201975,_134-80">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[76]</a> In the example above, storing a reference to variable <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">x</code> in <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">r</code> is valid, as variable <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">x</code> has a longer lifetime (<code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">'a</code>) than variable <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">r</code> (<code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">'b</code>). However, when <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">x</code> has a shorter lifetime, the borrow checker would reject the program:

let r: &i32; // ------------------+- Lifetime 'a

// |

{ // |

r = &x; // ERROR: x does | |

} // not live long -| |

// enough |

} // ------------------+

</pre></div>

Since the lifetime of the referenced variable (<code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">'b</code>) is shorter than the lifetime of the variable holding the reference (<code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">'a</code>), the borrow checker errors, preventing <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">x</code> from being used from outside its scope.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2019194–195-82">[77]</a>

Lifetimes can be indicated using explicit lifetime parameters on function arguments. For example, the following code specifies that the reference returned by the function has the same lifetime as <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">original</code> (and not necessarily the same lifetime as <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">prefix</code>):<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2023208–12-83">[78]</a>

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>fn remove_prefix<'a>(mut original: &'a str, prefix: &str) -> &'a str {

if original.starts_with(prefix) {

original = original[prefix.len()..];

}

original

}

</pre></div>

In the compiler, ownership and lifetimes work together to prevent memory safety issues such as dangling pointers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2023[httpsdocrust-langorgbookch04-02-references-and-borrowinghtml_4.2._References_and_Borrowing]-84">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pearce-85">[80]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="User-defined_types">User-defined types</h3></div>

User-defined types are created with the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">struct</code> or <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">enum</code> keywords. The <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">struct</code> keyword is used to denote a <a href="Record_(computer_science)" title="Record (computer science)">record type</a> that groups multiple related values.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols201983-86">[81]</a> <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">enum</code>s can take on different variants at runtime, with its capabilities similar to <a href="Algebraic_data_types" class="mw-redirect" title="Algebraic data types">algebraic data types</a> found in functional programming languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols201997-87">[82]</a> Both records and enum variants can contain <a href="Field_(computer_science)" title="Field (computer science)">fields</a> with different types.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols201998–101-88">[83]</a> Alternative names, or aliases, for the same type can be defined with the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">type</code> keyword.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2019438–440-89">[84]</a>

The <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">impl</code> keyword can define methods for a user-defined type. Data and functions are defined separately. Implementations fulfill a role similar to that of <a href="Class_(computer_programming)" title="Class (computer programming)">classes</a> within other languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols201993-90">[85]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Standard_library">Standard library</h4></div>

The Rust <a href="Standard_library" title="Standard library">standard library</a> defines and implements many widely used custom data types, including core data structures such as <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">Vec</code>, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">Option</code>, and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">HashMap</code>, as well as <a href="Smart_pointer" title="Smart pointer">smart pointer</a> types. Rust also provides a way to exclude most of the standard library using the attribute <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">#![no_std]</code>, for applications such as embedded devices. Internally, the standard library is divided into three parts, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">core</code>, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">alloc</code>, and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">std</code>, where <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">std</code> and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">alloc</code> are excluded by <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">#![no_std]</code>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGjengset2021213–215-91">[86]</a>

Rust uses <a href="Option_type" title="Option type"><code>Option</code></a> to define optional values, which can be matched using <code>if let</code> or <code>match</code> to access the inner value:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2023108–110,_113–114,_116–117-92">[87]</a>

let name1: Option<&str> = None;

// In this case, nothing will be printed out

if let Some(name) = name1 {

println!("{name}");

}

let name2: Option<&str> = Some("Matthew");

// In this case, the word "Matthew" will be printed out

if let Some(name) = name2 {

println!("{name}");

}

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pointers">Pointers</h3></div>

The <code>&</code> and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">&mut</code> reference types are guaranteed to not be null and point to valid memory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGjengset2021155-156-93">[88]</a> The raw pointer types <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">*const</code> and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">*mut</code> opt out of the safety guarantees, thus they may be null or invalid; however, it is impossible to dereference them unless the code is explicitly declared unsafe through the use of an <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">unsafe</code> block.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2023421–423-94">[89]</a> Unlike dereferencing, the creation of raw pointers is allowed inside safe Rust code.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2019418–427-95">[90]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Type_conversion">Type conversion</h3></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Type_conversion#Rust" title="Type conversion">Type conversion § Rust</a>.[<a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Type_conversion&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt">

Rust provides no implicit type conversion (coercion) between most primitive types. But, explicit type conversion (casting) can be performed using the <code>as</code> keyword.<a href="#cite_note-96">[91]</a>

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>let x: i32 = 1000;

println!("1000 as a u16 is: {}", x as u16);

</pre></div></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polymorphism">Polymorphism</h3></div>

Rust supports <a href="Bounded_parametric_polymorphism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bounded parametric polymorphism">bounded parametric polymorphism</a> through <a href="Trait_(computer_programming)" title="Trait (computer programming)">traits</a> and <a href="Generic_function" title="Generic function">generic functions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2023378-97">[92]</a> Common behavior between types may be declared using traits and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">impl</code>s:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2023192–198-98">[93]</a>

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>trait Zero: Sized {

fn is_zero(&self) -> bool

where

Self: PartialEq,

{

self == &Zero::zero()

}

}

impl Zero for u32 {

fn zero() -> u32 { 0 }

}

impl Zero for f32 {

fn zero() -> Self { 0.0 }

}

</pre></div>

The example above also includes a method <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">is_zero</code> which provides a default implementation that is not required when implementing the trait.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2023192–198-98">[93]</a>

A function can then be made generic by adding type parameters inside angle brackets (<code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><Num></code>), which only allow types that implement the trait:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>// zero is a generic function with one type parameter, Num

fn zero<Num: Zero>() -> Num {

Num::zero()

}

fn main() {

let a: u32 = zero();

let b: f32 = zero();

assert!(a.is_zero() && b.is_zero());

}

</pre></div>

In the examples above, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">Num: Zero</code> as well as <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">where Self: PartialEq</code> are trait bounds that constrain the type to only allow types that implement <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">Zero</code> or <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">PartialEq</code>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2023192–198-98">[93]</a> Within a trait or impl, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">Self</code> refers to the type that the code is implementing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols202398-99">[94]</a>

Generics can be used in functions to allow implementing a behavior for different types without repeating the same code. Generic functions can be written in relation to other generics, without knowing the actual type.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2019171–172,_205-100">[95]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trait_objects">Trait objects</h4></div>

Generic functions use <a href="Static_dispatch" title="Static dispatch">static dispatch</a>, meaning that the type of all parameters that end up being used for the function must be known at compile time. Generic functions generate separate copies of the code for each combination of generic parameters used in a process called <a href="Monomorphization" title="Monomorphization">monomorphization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2023191–192-101">[96]</a> Because monomorphization duplicates the code for each type used, it is as performant as writing functions using concrete types,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2023191–192-101">[96]</a> but compile time and size of the output binary could be increased.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGjengset202125-102">[97]</a>

however, Rust also uses a feature known as trait objects to accomplish <a href="Dynamic_dispatch" title="Dynamic dispatch">dynamic dispatch</a>, a type of polymorphism where the implementation of a polymorphic operation is chosen at <a href="Runtime_(program_lifecycle_phase)" class="mw-redirect" title="Runtime (program lifecycle phase)">runtime</a>. This allows for behavior similar to <a href="Duck_typing" title="Duck typing">duck typing</a>, where all data types that implement a given trait can be treated as functionally equivalent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2023[httpsdocrust-langorgbookch18-02-trait-objectshtml_18.2._Using_Trait_Objects_That_Allow_for_Values_of_Different_Types]-103">[98]</a> Trait objects are declared using the syntax <code>dyn Tr</code> where <code>Tr</code> is a trait. Trait objects are dynamically sized, therefore they must be put behind a pointer, such as <code>Box</code>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2019441–442-104">[99]</a> The following example creates a list of objects where each object can be printed out using the <code>Display</code> trait:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>use std::fmt::Display;

let v: Vec<Box<dyn Display>> = vec![

Box::new(3),

Box::new(5.0),

Box::new("hi"),

];

for x in v {

println!("{x}");

}

</pre></div>

If an element in the list does not implement the <code>Display</code> trait, it will cause a compile-time error.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2019379–380-105">[100]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memory_safety">Memory safety</h3></div>

Rust is designed to be <a href="Memory_safe" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory safe">memory safe</a>. It does not permit null pointers, <a href="Dangling_pointer" title="Dangling pointer">dangling pointers</a>, or <a href="Data_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Data race">data races</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cnet-106">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-lwn-107">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Rustonomicon-108">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sensors-109">[104]</a> Data values can be initialized only through a fixed set of forms, all of which require their inputs to be already initialized.<a href="#cite_note-lang-faq-110">[105]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memory_management">Memory management</h3></div>

Rust does not use <a href="Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" title="Garbage collection (computer science)">garbage collection</a>. Memory and other resources are instead managed through the "resource acquisition is initialization" convention,<a href="#cite_note-111">[106]</a> with optional <a href="Reference_counting" title="Reference counting">reference counting</a>. Rust provides deterministic management of resources, with very low <a href="Overhead_(computing)" title="Overhead (computing)">overhead</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[107]</a> Values are <a href="Stack-based_memory_allocation" title="Stack-based memory allocation">allocated on the stack</a> by default, and all <a href="Dynamic_allocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic allocation">dynamic allocations</a> must be explicit.<a href="#cite_note-113">[108]</a>

The built-in reference types using the <code>&</code> symbol do not involve run-time reference counting. The safety and validity of the underlying pointers is verified at compile time, preventing <a href="Dangling_pointers" class="mw-redirect" title="Dangling pointers">dangling pointers</a> and other forms of <a href="Undefined_behavior" title="Undefined behavior">undefined behavior</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols201970–75-114">[109]</a> Rust's type system separates shared, <a href="Immutable_object" title="Immutable object">immutable</a> references of the form <code>&T</code> from unique, mutable references of the form <code>&mut T</code>. A mutable reference can be coerced to an immutable reference, but not vice versa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2019323-115">[110]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unsafe">Unsafe</h3></div>

Rust's memory safety checks may be circumvented through the use of <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">unsafe</code> blocks. This allows programmers to deference arbitrary raw pointers, call external code, or perform other low-level functionality not allowed by safe Rust.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2023420–429-116">[111]</a> Some low-level functionality enabled in this way includes <a href="Volatile_(computer_programming)" title="Volatile (computer programming)">volatile memory access</a>, architecture-specific intrinsics, <a href="Type_punning" title="Type punning">type punning</a>, and inline assembly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNamara2021139,_376–379,_395-117">[112]</a>

Unsafe code is sometimes needed to implement complex data structures.<a href="#cite_note-UnsafeRustUse-118">[113]</a> A frequently cited example is that it is difficult or impossible to implement <a href="Doubly_linked_list" title="Doubly linked list">doubly linked lists</a> in safe Rust.<a href="#cite_note-119">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[117]</a>

Programmers using unsafe Rust are considered responsible for upholding Rust's memory and type safety requirements, for example, that no two mutable references exist pointing to the same location.<a href="#cite_note-IsRustSafely-123">[118]</a> If programmers write code which violates these requirements, this results in <a href="Undefined_behavior" title="Undefined behavior">undefined behavior</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IsRustSafely-123">[118]</a> The Rust documentation includes a list of behavior considered undefined, including accessing dangling or misaligned pointers, or breaking the aliasing rules for references.<a href="#cite_note-124">[119]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Macros">Macros</h3></div>

Macros allow generation and transformation of Rust code to reduce repetition. Macros come in two forms, with declarative macros defined through <code>macro_rules!</code>, and procedural macros, which are defined in separate crates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2023449–455-125">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGjengset2021101–102-126">[121]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Declarative_macros">Declarative macros</h4></div>

A declarative macro (also called a "macro by example") is a macro, defined using the <code>macro_rules!</code> keyword, that uses pattern matching to determine its expansion.<a href="#cite_note-Rust_Ref._–_Macros_By_Example-127">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2019446–448-128">[123]</a> Below is an example that sums over all its arguments:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>macro_rules! sum {

( $initial:expr $(, $expr:expr )* $(,)? ) => {

$initial $(+ $expr)*

}

}

fn main() {

let x: i32 = sum!(1, 2, 3);

println!("{x}"); // prints 6

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Procedural_macros">Procedural macros</h4></div>

Procedural macros are Rust functions that run and modify the compiler's input <a href="Token_(parser)" class="mw-redirect" title="Token (parser)">token</a> stream, before any other components are compiled. They are generally more flexible than declarative macros, but are more difficult to maintain due to their complexity.<a href="#cite_note-rust-procedural-macros-129">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2019449–455-130">[125]</a>

Procedural macros come in three flavors:

<ul><li>Function-like macros <code>custom!(...)</code></li>

<li>Derive macros <code>#[derive(CustomDerive)]</code></li>

<li>Attribute macros <code>#[custom_attribute]</code></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interface_with_C_and_C++">Interface with C and C++</h3></div>

Rust supports the creation of <a href="Foreign_function_interface" title="Foreign function interface">foreign function interfaces</a> (FFI) through the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">extern</code> keyword. A function that uses the C <a href="Calling_convention" title="Calling convention">calling convention</a> can be written using <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">extern "C" fn</code>. Symbols can be exported from Rust to other languages through the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">#[no_mangle]</code> attribute, and symbols can be imported into Rust through <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">extern</code> blocks:<a href="#cite_note-132">[note 6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGjengset2021193–209-133">[127]</a>

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>#[unsafe(no_mangle)]

pub extern "C" fn exported_from_rust(x: i32) -> i32 { x + 1 }

unsafe extern "C" {

fn imported_into_rust(x: i32) -> i32;

}

</pre></div>

The <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">#[repr(C)]</code> attribute enables deterministic memory layouts for <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">struct</code>s and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">enum</code>s for use across FFI boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGjengset2021193–209-133">[127]</a> External libraries such as <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">bindgen</code> and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">cxx</code> can generate Rust bindings for C/C++.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGjengset2021193–209-133">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[128]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</h2></div>

The Rust ecosystem includes its compiler, its <a href="#Standard_library">standard library</a>, and additional components for software development. Component installation is typically managed by <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">rustup</code>, a Rust <a href="Toolchain" title="Toolchain">toolchain</a> installer developed by the Rust project.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlandyOrendorffTindall20216–8-135">[129]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compiler">Compiler</h3></div>

The Rust compiler, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">rustc</code>, translates Rust code into low-level LLVM <a href="Intermediate_representation" title="Intermediate representation">IR</a>. LLVM is then invoked as a subcomponent to apply <a href="Optimizing_compiler" title="Optimizing compiler">optimizations</a> and translate the resulting IR into <a href="Object_code" title="Object code">object code</a>. A <a href="Linker_(computing)" title="Linker (computing)">linker</a> is then used to combine the objects into a single executable image or binary file.<a href="#cite_note-136">[130]</a>

Other than LLVM, the compiler also supports using alternative backends such as <a href="GNU_Compiler_Collection" title="GNU Compiler Collection">GCC</a> and <a href="Cranelift" title="Cranelift">Cranelift</a> for code generation.<a href="#cite_note-137">[131]</a> The intention of those alternative backends is to increase platform coverage of Rust or to improve compilation times.<a href="#cite_note-138">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[133]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cargo">Cargo</h3></div>

Cargo is Rust's <a href="Build_system_(software_development)" title="Build system (software development)">build system</a> and <a href="Package_manager" title="Package manager">package manager</a>. It downloads, compiles, distributes, and uploads packages—called crates—that are maintained in an official registry. It also acts as a front-end for Clippy and other Rust components.<a href="#cite_note-Nature-140">[134]</a>

By default, Cargo sources its dependencies from the user-contributed registry crates.io, but <a href="Git" title="Git">Git</a> repositories, crates in the local filesystem, and other external sources can also be specified as dependencies.<a href="#cite_note-141">[135]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rustfmt">Rustfmt</h3></div>

Rustfmt is a <a href="Code_formatter" class="mw-redirect" title="Code formatter">code formatter</a> for Rust. It formats whitespace and <a href="Indentation_style" title="Indentation style">indentation</a> to produce code in accordance with a common <a href="Programming_style" title="Programming style">style</a>, unless otherwise specified. It can be invoked as a standalone program, or from a Rust project through Cargo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2019511–512-142">[136]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clippy">Clippy</h3></div>

Clippy is Rust's built-in <a href="Linting" class="mw-redirect" title="Linting">linting</a> tool to improve the correctness, performance, and readability of Rust code. As of 2024, it has more than 700 rules.<a href="#cite_note-143">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[138]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Versioning_system">Versioning system</h3></div>

Following Rust 1.0, new features are developed in nightly versions which are released daily. During each six-week release cycle, changes to nightly versions are released to beta, while changes from the previous beta version are released to a new stable version.<a href="#cite_note-Rust_Book_G-145">[139]</a>

Every two or three years, a new "edition" is produced. Editions are released to allow making limited <a href="Breaking_changes" class="mw-redirect" title="Breaking changes">breaking changes</a>, such as promoting <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">await</code> to a keyword to support <a href="Async/await" title="Async/await">async/await</a> features. Crates targeting different editions can interoperate with each other, so a crate can upgrade to a new edition even if its callers or its dependencies still target older editions. Migration to a new edition can be assisted with automated tooling.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlandyOrendorffTindall2021176–177-146">[140]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="IDE_support">IDE support</h3></div>

rust-analyzer is a set of <a href="Utility_software" title="Utility software">utilities</a> that provides <a href="Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">integrated development environments</a> (IDEs) and <a href="Text_editor" title="Text editor">text editors</a> with information about a Rust project through the <a href="Language_Server_Protocol" title="Language Server Protocol">Language Server Protocol</a>. This enables features including <a href="Autocomplete" title="Autocomplete">autocomplete</a>, and <a href="Compilation_error" title="Compilation error">compilation error</a> display, while editing code.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlabnikNichols2023623-147">[141]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Performance">Performance</h2></div>

Since it performs no garbage collection, Rust is often faster than other memory-safe languages.<a href="#cite_note-148">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-BeyondSafety-75">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[143]</a> Most of Rust's memory safety guarantees impose no runtime overhead,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNamara202111-150">[144]</a> with the exception of <a href="Array_(data_structure)" title="Array (data structure)">array indexing</a> which is checked at runtime by default.<a href="#cite_note-SaferAtAnySpeed-151">[145]</a> The performance impact of array indexing bounds checks varies, but can be significant in some cases.<a href="#cite_note-SaferAtAnySpeed-151">[145]</a>

Many of Rust's features are so-called zero-cost abstractions, meaning they are optimized away at compile time and incur no runtime penalty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNamara202119,_27-152">[146]</a> The ownership and borrowing system permits <a href="Zero-copy" title="Zero-copy">zero-copy</a> implementations for some performance-sensitive tasks, such as <a href="Parsing" title="Parsing">parsing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[147]</a> <a href="Static_dispatch" title="Static dispatch">Static dispatch</a> is used by default to eliminate <a href="Method_call" class="mw-redirect" title="Method call">method calls</a>, except for methods called on dynamic trait objects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNamara202120-154">[148]</a> The compiler also uses <a href="Inline_expansion" title="Inline expansion">inline expansion</a> to eliminate <a href="Function_call" class="mw-redirect" title="Function call">function calls</a> and statically-dispatched method invocations.<a href="#cite_note-155">[149]</a>

Since Rust uses <a href="LLVM" title="LLVM">LLVM</a>, all performance improvements in LLVM apply to Rust also.<a href="#cite_note-how-fast-is-rust-156">[150]</a> Unlike C and C++, Rust allows for reordering struct and enum elements<a href="#cite_note-157">[151]</a> to reduce the sizes of structures in memory, for better memory alignment and efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGjengset202122-158">[152]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adoption">Adoption</h2></div>

Rust is used in software across different domains. Components from the Servo browser engine (funded by <a href="Mozilla" title="Mozilla">Mozilla</a> and <a href="Samsung" title="Samsung">Samsung</a>) were incorporated in the <a href="Gecko_(software)" title="Gecko (software)">Gecko</a> browser engine underlying <a href="Firefox" title="Firefox">Firefox</a>.<a href="#cite_note-159">[153]</a> In January 2023, Google (<a href="Alphabet_Inc." title="Alphabet Inc.">Alphabet</a>) announced support for using third party Rust libraries in <a href="Chromium_(web_browser)" title="Chromium (web browser)">Chromium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[155]</a>

Rust is used in several <a href="Frontend_and_backend" title="Frontend and backend">backend</a> software projects of large <a href="Web_service" title="Web service">web services</a>. <a href="OpenDNS" title="OpenDNS">OpenDNS</a>, a <a href="Domain_Name_System" title="Domain Name System">DNS</a> resolution service owned by <a href="Cisco" title="Cisco">Cisco</a>, uses Rust internally.<a href="#cite_note-162">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[157]</a> <a href="Amazon_Web_Services" title="Amazon Web Services">Amazon Web Services</a> uses Rust in "performance-sensitive components" of its several services. In 2019, AWS <a href="Open_sourced" class="mw-redirect" title="Open sourced">open-sourced</a> <a href="Firecracker_(software)" title="Firecracker (software)">Firecracker</a>, a virtualization solution primarily written in Rust.<a href="#cite_note-164">[158]</a> <a href="Microsoft_Azure" title="Microsoft Azure">Microsoft Azure</a> IoT Edge, a platform used to run Azure services on <a href="Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">IoT</a> devices, has components implemented in Rust.<a href="#cite_note-165">[159]</a> Microsoft also uses Rust to run containerized modules with <a href="WebAssembly" title="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</a> and <a href="Kubernetes" title="Kubernetes">Kubernetes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-166">[160]</a> <a href="Cloudflare" title="Cloudflare">Cloudflare</a>, a company providing <a href="Content_delivery_network" title="Content delivery network">content delivery network</a> services, used Rust to build a new <a href="Web_proxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Web proxy">web proxy</a> named Pingora for increased performance and efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-167">[161]</a> The <a href="Npm" title="Npm">npm package manager</a> used Rust for its production authentication service in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-168">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[164]</a>

In operating systems, the <a href="Rust_for_Linux" title="Rust for Linux">Rust for Linux</a> project, launched in 2020, merged initial support into the <a href="Linux_kernel" title="Linux kernel">Linux kernel</a> version 6.1 in late 2022.<a href="#cite_note-UsenixRustForLinux-171">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[167]</a> The project is active with a team of 6–7 developers, and has added more Rust code with kernel releases from 2022 to 2024,<a href="#cite_note-174">[168]</a> aiming to demonstrate the <a href="Minimum_viable_product" title="Minimum viable product">minimum viability</a> of the project and resolve key compatibility blockers.<a href="#cite_note-UsenixRustForLinux-171">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[169]</a> The first drivers written in Rust were merged into the kernel for version 6.8.<a href="#cite_note-UsenixRustForLinux-171">[165]</a> The <a href="Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a> developers used Rust in 2021 to rewrite existing components.<a href="#cite_note-176">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[171]</a> <a href="Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> has rewritten parts of <a href="Windows" class="mw-redirect" title="Windows">Windows</a> in Rust.<a href="#cite_note-178">[172]</a> The r9 project aims to re-implement <a href="Plan_9_from_Bell_Labs" title="Plan 9 from Bell Labs">Plan 9 from Bell Labs</a> in Rust.<a href="#cite_note-179">[173]</a> Rust has been used in the development of new operating systems such as <a href="Redox_(operating_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Redox (operating system)">Redox</a>, a "Unix-like" operating system and <a href="Microkernel" title="Microkernel">microkernel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-180">[174]</a> Theseus, an experimental operating system with modular state management,<a href="#cite_note-181">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[176]</a> and most of <a href="Fuchsia_(operating_system)" title="Fuchsia (operating system)">Fuchsia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-rustmag-1-183">[177]</a> Rust is also used for command-line tools and operating system components, including <a href="Stratis_(configuration_daemon)" title="Stratis (configuration daemon)">stratisd</a>, a <a href="File_system" title="File system">file system</a> manager<a href="#cite_note-184">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[179]</a> and COSMIC, a <a href="Desktop_environment" title="Desktop environment">desktop environment</a> by <a href="System76" title="System76">System76</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[180]</a>

In web development, <a href="Deno_(software)" title="Deno (software)">Deno</a>, a secure runtime for <a href="JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a> and <a href="TypeScript" title="TypeScript">TypeScript</a>, is built on top of <a href="V8_(JavaScript_engine)" title="V8 (JavaScript engine)">V8</a> using Rust and Tokio.<a href="#cite_note-187">[181]</a> Other notable adoptions in this space include <a href="Ruffle_(software)" title="Ruffle (software)">Ruffle</a>, an open-source <a href="SWF" title="SWF">SWF</a> emulator,<a href="#cite_note-188">[182]</a> and <a href="Polkadot_(cryptocurrency)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polkadot (cryptocurrency)">Polkadot</a>, an open source <a href="Blockchain" title="Blockchain">blockchain</a> and <a href="Cryptocurrency" title="Cryptocurrency">cryptocurrency</a> platform.<a href="#cite_note-189">[183]</a>

<a href="Discord" title="Discord">Discord</a>, an <a href="Instant_messaging" title="Instant messaging">instant messaging</a> software company, rewrote parts of its system in Rust for increased performance in 2020. In the same year, Dropbox announced that its <a href="File_synchronization" title="File synchronization">file synchronization</a> had been rewritten in Rust. <a href="Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a> (<a href="Meta_Platforms" title="Meta Platforms">Meta</a>) used Rust to redesign its system that manages source code for internal projects.<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a>

In the 2025 <a href="Stack_Overflow" title="Stack Overflow">Stack Overflow</a> Developer Survey, 14.8% of respondents had recently done extensive development in Rust.<a href="#cite_note-SO-2025-survey-190">[184]</a> The survey named Rust the "most admired programming language" annually from 2016 to 2025 (inclusive), as measured by the number of existing developers interested in continuing to work in the language.<a href="#cite_note-191">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[note 7]</a> In 2025, 29.2% of developers not currently working in Rust expressed an interest in doing so.<a href="#cite_note-SO-2025-survey-190">[184]</a>

<a href="DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a> has a project TRACTOR (Translating All C to Rust) automatically translating C to Rust using techniques such as static analysis, dynamic analysis, and large language models.<a href="#cite_note-193">[186]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_academic_research">In academic research</h2></div>

Rust's safety and performance have been investigated in <a href="Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">programming language theory</a> research.<a href="#cite_note-194">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-UnsafeRustUse-118">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[188]</a>

Rust's applicability to writing research software has been examined in other fields. A journal article published to <a href="Proceedings_of_the_International_Astronomical_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union">Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union</a> used Rust to simulate multi-planet systems.<a href="#cite_note-ResearchSoftware1-196">[189]</a> An article published in <a href="Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a> shared stories of bioinformaticians using Rust.<a href="#cite_note-Nature-140">[134]</a> Both articles found that Rust has advantages for its performance and safety, and cited the <a href="Learning_curve" title="Learning curve">learning curve</a> as being a primary drawback to its adoption.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Community">Community</h2></div>

According to the <a href="MIT_Technology_Review" title="MIT Technology Review">MIT Technology Review</a>, the Rust community has been seen as "unusually friendly" to newcomers and particularly attracted people from the <a href="Queer_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Queer community">queer community</a>, partly due to its <a href="Code_of_conduct" title="Code of conduct">code of conduct</a> which outlined a set of expectations for Rust community members to follow.<a href="#cite_note-MITTechReview-16">[13]</a> Inclusiveness of the community has been cited as an important factor for some Rust developers.<a href="#cite_note-Nature-140">[134]</a> Demographic data on the community has been collected and published by the Rust official blog.<a href="#cite_note-StateOfRustSurvey2024-199">[192]</a>

According to <a href="GitHub" title="GitHub">GitHub</a>'s State of the Octoverse project, the Rust community grew by 50.5% in 2022, making it one of the fastest growing communities,<a href="#cite_note-200">[193]</a> though not one of the 10 largest communities as of 2024.<a href="#cite_note-201">[194]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rust_Foundation">Rust Foundation</h3></div>

<table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Rust Foundation</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image logo"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Formation</th><td class="infobox-data note">February 8, 2021 (2021-02-08)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Founders</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">

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</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="Amazon_Web_Services" title="Amazon Web Services">Amazon Web Services</a></li><li><a href="Google" title="Google">Google</a></li><li><a href="Huawei" title="Huawei">Huawei</a></li><li><a href="Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a></li><li><a href="Mozilla_Foundation" title="Mozilla Foundation">Mozilla Foundation</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Nonprofit_organization" title="Nonprofit organization">Nonprofit organization</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Location</th><td class="infobox-data label"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Chairperson" class="mw-redirect" title="Chairperson">Chairperson</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data">Shane Miller</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Executive_Director" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive Director">Executive Director</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data">Rebecca Rumbul</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://foundation.rust-lang.org">foundation.rust-lang.org</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

The Rust Foundation is a <a href="Nonprofit_organization" title="Nonprofit organization">non-profit</a> <a href="Membership_organization" title="Membership organization">membership organization</a> incorporated in <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, with the primary purposes of backing the technical project as a <a href="Legal_entity" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal entity">legal entity</a> and helping to manage the trademark and infrastructure assets.<a href="#cite_note-202">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-49">[44]</a>

It was established on February 8, 2021, with five founding corporate members (Amazon Web Services, Huawei, Google, Microsoft, and Mozilla).<a href="#cite_note-203">[196]</a> The foundation's board is chaired by Shane Miller.<a href="#cite_note-204">[197]</a> Starting in late 2021, its Executive Director and CEO is Rebecca Rumbul.<a href="#cite_note-205">[198]</a> Prior to this, Ashley Williams was interim executive director.<a href="#cite_note-:4-49">[44]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governance_teams">Governance teams</h3></div>

The Rust project is composed of teams that are responsible for different subareas of the development. The compiler team develops, manages, and optimizes compiler internals; and the language team designs new language features and helps implement them. The Rust project website lists 6 top-level teams as of July 2024.<a href="#cite_note-206">[199]</a> Representatives among teams form the Leadership council, which oversees the Rust project as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-207">[200]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages" title="Comparison of programming languages">Comparison of programming languages</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_programming_languages" title="History of programming languages">History of programming languages</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_programming_languages" title="List of programming languages">List of programming languages</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_programming_languages_by_type" title="List of programming languages by type">List of programming languages by type</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Including build tools, host tools, and standard library support for <a href="X86-64" title="X86-64">x86-64</a>, <a href="ARM_architecture_family" title="ARM architecture family">ARM</a>, <a href="MIPS_architecture" title="MIPS architecture">MIPS</a>, <a href="RISC-V" title="RISC-V">RISC-V</a>, <a href="WebAssembly" title="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</a>, <a href="P6_(microarchitecture)" title="P6 (microarchitecture)">i686</a>, <a href="AArch64" title="AArch64">AArch64</a>, <a href="PowerPC" title="PowerPC">PowerPC</a>, and <a href="Linux_on_IBM_Z" title="Linux on IBM Z">s390x</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CrossPlatform-2">[2]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Including <a href="Windows" class="mw-redirect" title="Windows">Windows</a>, <a href="Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a>, <a href="MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a>, <a href="FreeBSD" title="FreeBSD">FreeBSD</a>, <a href="NetBSD" title="NetBSD">NetBSD</a>, and <a href="Illumos" title="Illumos">Illumos</a>. Host build tools on <a href="Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a>, <a href="IOS" title="IOS">iOS</a>, <a href="Haiku_(operating_system)" title="Haiku (operating system)">Haiku</a>, <a href="Redox_(operating_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Redox (operating system)">Redox</a>, and <a href="Fuchsia_(operating_system)" title="Fuchsia (operating system)">Fuchsia</a> are not officially shipped; these operating systems are supported as targets.<a href="#cite_note-CrossPlatform-2">[2]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Third-party dependencies, e.g., <a href="LLVM" title="LLVM">LLVM</a> or <a href="MSVC" class="mw-redirect" title="MSVC">MSVC</a>, are subject to their own licenses.<a href="#cite_note-5">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-licenses-6">[4]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> The list of Rust compiler versions (referred to as a bootstrapping chain) has history going back to 2012.<a href="#cite_note-Nelson2022RustConf-21">[18]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Energy compared to C was 3% more for Rust and 34% more for C++; time was 4% more and 56% more, respectively.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> wrapping <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">no_mangle</code> with <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">unsafe</code> as well as prefacing the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">extern "C"</code> block with <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-rust mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">unsafe</code> are required in the 2024 edition or later.<a href="#cite_note-131">[126]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> That is, among respondents who have done "extensive development work [with Rust] in over the past year" (14.8%), Rust had the largest percentage who also expressed interest to "work in [Rust] over the next year" (72.4%).<a href="#cite_note-SO-2025-survey-190">[184]</a>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_sources">Book sources</h3></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFGjengset2021" class="citation book cs1">Gjengset, Jon (2021). Rust for Rustaceans (1st ed.). No Starch Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781718501850</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1277511986">1277511986</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKlabnikNichols2019" class="citation book cs1">Klabnik, Steve; Nichols, Carol (2019-08-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0Vv6DwAAQBAJ">The Rust Programming Language (Covers Rust 2018)</a>. No Starch Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-7185-0044-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBlandyOrendorffTindall2021" class="citation book cs1">Blandy, Jim; Orendorff, Jason; Tindall, Leonora F. S. (2021). Programming Rust: Fast, Safe Systems Development (2nd ed.). O'Reilly Media. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4920-5254-8</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1289839504">1289839504</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMcNamara2021" class="citation book cs1">McNamara, Tim (2021). Rust in Action. Manning Publications. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-6172-9455-6</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1153044639">1153044639</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKlabnikNichols2023" class="citation book cs1">Klabnik, Steve; Nichols, Carol (2023). The Rust programming language (2nd ed.). No Starch Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-7185-0310-6</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1363816350">1363816350</a>.</cite></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/rust-lang/rust">Source code</a> on <a href="GitHub" title="GitHub">GitHub</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Programming_languages625" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages" title="Comparison of programming languages">Comparison</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_programming_languages" title="Timeline of programming languages">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_programming_languages" title="History of programming languages">History</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="ALGOL" title="ALGOL">ALGOL</a>

<ul><li><a href="Simula" title="Simula">Simula</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly</a></li>

<li><a href="BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a>

<ul><li><a href="Visual_Basic" title="Visual Basic">Visual Basic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Visual_Basic_(classic)" title="Visual Basic (classic)">classic</a></li>

<li><a href="COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a></li>

<li><a href="Erlang_(programming_language)" title="Erlang (programming language)">Erlang</a>

<ul><li><a href="Elixir_(programming_language)" title="Elixir (programming language)">Elixir</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming language)">Forth</a></li>

<li><a href="Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a></li>

<li><a href="Haskell" title="Haskell">Haskell</a></li>

<li><a href="JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a></li>

<li><a href="Julia_(programming_language)" title="Julia (programming language)">Julia</a></li>

<li><a href="Kotlin_(programming_language)" title="Kotlin (programming language)">Kotlin</a></li>

<li><a href="MATLAB" title="MATLAB">MATLAB</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="OCaml" title="OCaml">OCaml</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a>

<ul><li><a href="Object_Pascal" title="Object Pascal">Object Pascal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a></li>

<li><a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a></li>

<li><a href="Scratch_(programming_language)" title="Scratch (programming language)">Scratch</a></li>

<li><a href="Shell_script" title="Shell script">Shell</a></li>

<li><a href="Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a></li>

<li><a href="Swift_(programming_language)" title="Swift (programming language)">Swift</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Lists: <a href="List_of_programming_languages" title="List of programming languages">Alphabetical</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_programming_languages_by_type" title="List of programming languages by type">Categorical</a></li>

<li><a href="Generational_list_of_programming_languages" title="Generational list of programming languages">Generational</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based</a></li>

<li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mozilla52" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mozilla52" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Mozilla" title="Mozilla">Mozilla</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Projects52" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Projects</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mozilla Labs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bugzilla" title="Bugzilla">Bugzilla</a></li>

<li><a href="ChatZilla" title="ChatZilla">ChatZilla</a></li>

<li><a href="Jetpack_(Firefox_project)" title="Jetpack (Firefox project)">Jetpack</a></li>

<li><a href="Lightning_(software)" title="Lightning (software)">Lightning</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_Persona" title="Mozilla Persona">Persona</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_Prism" title="Mozilla Prism">Prism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_Raindrop" title="Mozilla Raindrop">Raindrop</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_Skywriter" title="Mozilla Skywriter">Skywriter</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_Sunbird" title="Mozilla Sunbird">Sunbird</a></li>

<li><a href="Ubiquity_(Firefox)" title="Ubiquity (Firefox)">Ubiquity</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mozilla Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alliance_for_Open_Media" title="Alliance for Open Media">Open Media</a></li>

<li><a href="Shumway_(software)" title="Shumway (software)">Shumway</a></li>

<li><a href="WebAssembly" title="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</a></li>

<li><a href="WebXR" title="WebXR">WebXR</a></li>

<li><a href="Daala" title="Daala">Daala</a></li>

<li><a href="Firefox_OS" title="Firefox OS">Firefox OS</a></li>

<li><a href="OpenFlint" title="OpenFlint">OpenFlint</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mozilla Foundation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mozilla_Location_Service" title="Mozilla Location Service">Mozilla Location Service</a></li>

<li><a href="SeaMonkey" title="SeaMonkey">SeaMonkey</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_Monitor" title="Mozilla Monitor">Mozilla Monitor</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_Thunderbird" title="Mozilla Thunderbird">Thunderbird</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_VPN" title="Mozilla VPN">Mozilla VPN</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Mozilla_products" title="List of Mozilla products">List of products</a></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Firefox</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Firefox" title="Firefox">Firefox Browser</a>

<ul><li><a href="Firefox_early_version_history" title="Firefox early version history">Early version history</a></li>

<li><a href="Firefox_version_history" title="Firefox version history">Version history</a></li>

<li><a href="Firefox_for_Android" title="Firefox for Android">for Android</a></li>

<li><a href="Firefox_Focus" title="Firefox Focus">Focus</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pocket_(service)" title="Pocket (service)">Pocket</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mozilla_Application_Suite" title="Mozilla Application Suite">Mozilla Application Suite</a></li>

<li><a href="Netscape_Navigator" title="Netscape Navigator">Netscape Navigator</a></li>

<li><a href="Netscape_Communicator" title="Netscape Communicator">Netscape Communicator</a></li>

<li><a href="Netscape" title="Netscape">Netscape Communications</a></li>

<li><a href="Beonex_Communicator" title="Beonex Communicator">Beonex Communicator</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frameworks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Gecko_(software)" title="Gecko (software)">Gecko</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_application_framework" title="Mozilla application framework">Necko</a></li>

<li><a href="NPAPI" title="NPAPI">NPAPI</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mozilla_Composer" title="Mozilla Composer">Composer</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhino_(JavaScript_engine)" title="Rhino (JavaScript engine)">Rhino</a></li>

<li><a href="SpiderMonkey" title="SpiderMonkey">SpiderMonkey</a></li>

<li><a href="Tamarin_(software)" title="Tamarin (software)">Tamarin</a></li>

<li>Features</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Typefaces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Zilla_Slab" title="Zilla Slab">Zilla Slab</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discontinued</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mozilla_Calendar_Project" title="Mozilla Calendar Project">Calendar Project</a></li>

<li><a href="Camino_(web_browser)" title="Camino (web browser)">Camino</a></li>

<li><a href="Firefox_Lockwise" title="Firefox Lockwise">Firefox Lockwise</a></li>

<li><a href="Firefox_Send" title="Firefox Send">Firefox Send</a></li>

<li><a href="Minimo" title="Minimo">Minimo</a></li>

<li><a href="XPCOM" title="XPCOM">XPCOM</a></li>

<li><a href="XPInstall" title="XPInstall">XPInstall</a></li>

<li><a href="XULRunner" title="XULRunner">XULRunner</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Basilisk_(web_browser)" title="Basilisk (web browser)">Basilisk</a></li>

<li><a href="Classilla" title="Classilla">Classilla</a></li>

<li><a href="Flock_(web_browser)" title="Flock (web browser)">Flock</a></li>

<li><a href="Floorp" title="Floorp">Floorp</a></li>

<li><a href="Goanna_(software)" title="Goanna (software)">Goanna</a></li>

<li><a href="GNU_IceCat" title="GNU IceCat">IceCat</a></li>

<li><a href="LibreWolf" title="LibreWolf">LibreWolf</a></li>

<li><a href="Netscape_Navigator_9" title="Netscape Navigator 9">Netscape 9</a></li>

<li><a href="Firefox_Portable" title="Firefox Portable">Portable Edition</a></li>

<li><a href="Swiftfox" title="Swiftfox">Swiftfox</a></li>

<li><a href="Swiftweasel" title="Swiftweasel">Swiftweasel</a></li>

<li><a href="Waterfox" title="Waterfox">Waterfox</a></li>

<li><a href="XB_Browser" title="XB Browser">xB Browser</a></li>

<li><a href="Zen_Browser" title="Zen Browser">Zen Browser</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Discontinued projects are in italics. Some projects abandoned by Mozilla that are still maintained by third parties are in underline.</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Organization52" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Organization</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Foundation35" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mozilla_Foundation" title="Mozilla Foundation">Mozilla Foundation</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_Corporation" title="Mozilla Corporation">Mozilla Corporation</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_Messaging" title="Mozilla Messaging">Mozilla Messaging</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official affiliates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mozilla_China" title="Mozilla China">Mozilla China</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_Europe" title="Mozilla Europe">Mozilla Europe</a> (defunct)</li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_Japan" title="Mozilla Japan">Mozilla Japan</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mitchell_Baker" title="Mitchell Baker">Mitchell Baker</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Baron_(computer_scientist)" title="David Baron (computer scientist)">David Baron</a></li>

<li><a href="Tantek_%C3%87elik" title="Tantek Çelik">Tantek Çelik</a></li>

<li><a href="Laura_Chambers" title="Laura Chambers">Laura Chambers</a></li>

<li><a href="Brendan_Eich" title="Brendan Eich">Brendan Eich</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Hammink" title="John Hammink">John Hammink</a></li>

<li><a href="Johnny_Stenb%C3%A4ck" title="Johnny Stenbäck">Johnny Stenbäck</a></li>

<li><a href="Doug_Turner_(Mozilla)" title="Doug Turner (Mozilla)">Doug Turner</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Community52" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Community</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mozdev.org" title="Mozdev.org">mozdev.org</a></li>

<li><a href="MozillaZine" title="MozillaZine">MozillaZine</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other_topics52" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mozilla_Manifesto" title="Mozilla Manifesto">Mozilla Manifesto</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Book_of_Mozilla" title="The Book of Mozilla">The Book of Mozilla</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_Public_License" title="Mozilla Public License">Mozilla Public License</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_(mascot)" title="Mozilla (mascot)">Mascot</a></li>

<li><a href="Debian%E2%80%93Mozilla_trademark_dispute" title="Debian–Mozilla trademark dispute">Debian–Mozilla trademark dispute</a></li>

<li><a href="Common_Voice" title="Common Voice">Common Voice</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_Corp._v._FCC" title="Mozilla Corp. v. FCC">Mozilla Corp. v. FCC</a> (2019)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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